Lower Terraces along the Rappahannock River below Fredericksburg, Virginia and the Effects on Terrac

The word wetland actually describes a compilation of many different landscapes. "‘Wetland’ is the collective term for marshes, swamps, bogs, and similar places found in flat, vegetated areas; in low spots in the landscape; and in between dry land and water along the edges of streams, rivers, lakes, and coastlines" (Schiller and Flanagan 2). A cypress swamp, which is a forest of cypress trees standing in water all year round, is considered a wetland. A mountain meadow may also be considered a wetland, even though it is only wet for a couple of weeks in a year when snow melt makes the ground boggy (Boyles-Sprenkel). The places classified as wetlands may vary greatly.

What exactly is a wetland? There is not one, simple answer to this question. According to Dan Willard of Indiana University there are actually, collectively more than fifty (Kusler 10). It seems that every organization that has anything to do with wetlands adheres to a different definition of a wetland.

Here are a few:

The National Research Council definition says that a wetland is an ecosystem that depends on constant or recurrent shallow inundation or saturation at or near the surface of the substrate.

According to the US Fish and Wildlife Service, wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controllingthe environment and the associated plant and animal life. These transitional habitats occur between upland and aquatic environments where the water table is at or near the surface of the land, or where the land is covered by shallow water that may be up to six feet deep.

The Clean Water Act states that wetlands are those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.

There are many other organizations that have similarly varied definitions. Having this multitude of different organizations with diverse ideas of what a wetland is inevitably causes confusion. The wetland definitions are all slightly different in some way, yet at the same time they are all fundamentally alike as well, and all very plausible.

All the definitions contain three basic components:

1. Presence of Water

Almost everyone agrees that a wetland is wet land. The extent of wetness is the controversy. Certain kinds of wetlands may have standing water on them throughout the year. On the other hand, some wetlands may have water on their surface for only a short period of time. It makes it had to distinguish the second kind of wetland during the rest of the year.

Some experts declare that the legal term of saturation should be fifteen to twenty consecutive days. Others think it should be twenty-one or more. There is also the side that believes that wetland restrictions are too strict and the limit should be extended several more days.

2. Wetland Vegetation

Wetland vegetation is characterized by hydrophytes. According to the National Audubon Society, hydrophytes are a special group of plants that can tolerate various degrees of flooding, or live in frequently saturated areas (Niering). It is a rather large group. There are whole scores of different kinds of wetland plants. These hydrophytes are distinctive in that they can only live in the conditions that wetlands provide. Thus they are good indicators of wetlands, and are used to delineate wetlands. However, there are problems with this approach also. Some wetland environments are not conducive to vegetation at all, so there will be none present to identify the wetland.

3. Hydric Soils

Wetland soils are different from their upland counterparts. The presence of water affects the soil development. They are usually a gray color and have mottles present. The technical definition says that hydric soils are soils that are saturated, flooded, or ponded long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part (NAS 2-1). There are some situations where this approach will not work either. For example, areas where the ground is made up of gravel, soils cannot form.

II. SIGNIFICANCE OF WETLANDS

For years wetlands were considered wastelands. They were seen as useless and so they were unprotected. They were drained, filled, and dredged going back to the days of our first president; George Washington himself set up a company to drain the Great Dismal Swamp of Virginia and North Carolina in 1763 (Selcraig 46). We didn’t appreciate the value of wetlands until they started to disappear at a rapid rate. Now we know that wetlands are valuable economic resources.

Wetlands provide many benefits to humans in:

1. Water Quality Control

chemical and organic waste processing
nutrient removal and transformation
sediment retention

Due to their position between upland and deep water, wetlands can both intercept surface water runoff from land and filter floodwaters. The way wetlands remove pollutants from the water supply has to do with the biotic life they support. "Aquatic organisms such as algae and bacteria take up minerals and break down organic matter. If sewage is added upstream, the organic level will have been considerably reduced by the time the water has traveled several miles" (Niering). Wetlands and wetland plants are nutrient traps and really help us with our air and water pollution problems (Niering). Runoff from developed areas is a big source of wetland contamination. Runoff from agricultural areas tends to contain high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus, the two major chemicals in fertilizers (Niering). Runoff from urban sites is usually polluting the water with dangerous chemicals and/or domestic sewage. But wetlands are very efficient at removing this waste from the environment.

2. Flood Control

hydrologic cycle
water storage

The wetland soil acts like a living sponge and soaks up the rain and lets it enter the ground water system. The wetland also acts as a temporary storage basin, like an environmental bathtub. Since many wetlands are situated in a basin or depression, wetlands are the perfect place for excess flood water to go. Wetlands lower flood crests and lessen the danger of flash floods downstream, therefore reducing the likelihood of flood damage. They "protect crops in agricultural areas as well as protecting roads, buildings, and human health and safety" (NRCS/RCA 6).

3. Groundwater Recharge

critical groundwater recharge areas
groundwater discharge

With growing urban development there are becoming significantly fewer areas available for groundwater recharge. It is important to conserve wetlands to keep some of these areas open. Wetlands are also important for groundwater discharge. Wetlands release the water they store slowly to provide long-term base-flow to streams and lakes. They also provide a steady source of moisture for the local climate (Boyles-Sprenkel 18).

4. Erosion Control

sediment stabilization
shoreline buffer
wave attenuation
current velocity
storms
ice

Wetlands on the shores and banks of rivers, ponds, and beaches do many things to prevent erosion. Wetland plants growing on the banks stabilize the shore material. Their roots bind the soil and make it harder to erode. Wetlands along the shores and banks also prevent erosion by reducing the force of the moving water. The wetland’s presence causes friction of the wave or current movement, lessening its power to erode.

5. Lager Staten

Lager Staten is a German phrase used when talking about extraordinary preservation . Wetlands, bogs in particular, are extraordinary fossilization environments. They are tremendous consumers of Carbon Dioxide, but they’re also oxygen-starved, making them great for preserving fossils and uniquely, bodies. Two thousand corpses dating back to the Stone Age have been excavated from Eastern European bogs. In one Floridian bog seven thousand year old human brains complete with DNA were discovered (Selcraig 47).

6. Fish and Wildlife Diversity and Abundance

habitats for rare and endangered species
habitats for waterfowl and other birds
fish spawning and nursery grounds
home to many species of plants
biodiversity

"The very elements that make wetlands unpleasant for some humans - mud, heat, humidity, bugs - create the perfect nursery for turtles, dragonflies, and whooping cranes" (Niering). A large number of animals and plants types require wetland habitats for survival. Many of these organisms live primarily in wetlands, like the wood duck, muskrat, cattail, and swamp rose. Other types, like the perigrine falcon and white tail deer, don’t directly reside in wetlands, but they rely on them for survival (Tiner 4). The wetlands provide food, water, and cover for these animals - all essentials for living. Many of the organisms that need wetlands to survive are endangered species. "More than one-third of the nation’s threatened and endangered species live only in wetlands and nearly one-half of these species use wetlands in some point in their lives"(Benifits 2). Acre for acre swamps often-equal rain forests in biological diversity (Selcraig 46). However, swamps don’t get nearly as much advertisement or funds. How often does one see a "Save the Swamp" sign? This is probably because swamps are not seen as at all attractive environments compared to the rain forests.

7. Food Chain Support

detritus

"Wetlands can be regarded as the farmlands of the aquatic environment since great volumes of food (plant material) are produced by them annually" (Tiner 5). The wetland food chain starts with detritus, which is "dead leaves and stems that break down in the water to form small particles of organic matter" (Tiner 5). Small aquatic invertebrates and forager fish eat this detritus. Then larger predatory fish hunt and eat these invertebrates and forager fish. Finally man catches and eats the large predator fish.

8. Recreation

nature observation
education
hunting and fishing

There is a substantial tourist trade in wetlands every year. "More than one-half of adults (98 million people) in the US hunt, fish, birdwatch, or photograph wildlife. These activities, which rely in large measure on healthy wetlands, provided an estimated $59 billion to the nation al economy in 1991" (NRCS/RCA 5). Wetlands are actually very beautiful places in their own rights. They are good places in which to enjoy nature through hiking, boating, and other recreational activities. One can get a first hand look at basic ecological processes, such as energy flow, recycling, and limited carrying capacity (Niering). Wetlands are essentially "living museums" or "outdoor laboratories" important for their educational qualities. Wetlands also support a large trade of recreational fishing and hunting.

9. Natural Products for Human Use

seafood harvesting
fish
shellfish
timber production
peat moss mining
fur trapping

Humans have harvested many things from natural wetlands. Seafood is a very important product strongly tied to wetlands. "In 1991 the dockside value of fish landed in the US was $3.3 billion. The US fish processing and sales industry generates nearly $27 billion a year an employs hundreds of thousands of people. An estimated 71% of this value is derived from fish species that depend directly or indirectly on coastal wetlands during their life cycles" (NRCS/RCA 5).

10. Managed Wetlands

In Managed wetlands, the water level is actively managed for a specific purpose.

Wetlands are managed to serve the purposes of:

1. rice paddies

2. cranberry bogs

3. blueberry crops

4. catfish farms

5. storm-water management facilities

6. wildlife refuges

7. duck hunting clubs

III. FIVE MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS and CHARACTERISTICS of WETLANDS

A classification system for wetlands was established and adopted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service on December 12, 1977 (U.S. FWS 1). This classification system was established due to the increased recognition of the value of wetlands and the need for more defined, reliable classification information that could be accepted universally amongst all other government agencies. This system allows for better inventory, evaluation, and management of wetland areas. This system defines five major classifications of wetlands: Marine (oceanic), Estuarine (tidal), Riverine (river), Lacustrine (lake), and Palustrine (marsh or swamp) (Niering 21). Marine and estuarine habitats include coastal wetlands such as tidal marshes and mangrove swamps. Lacustrine, riverine, and palustrine wetlands represent freshwater systems and account for 90% of the nation’s wetland inventory. Lacustrine wetlands are associated with lakes, riverine wetlands are found along rivers and streams, and palustrine wetlands include marshes, swamps, and bogs (Niering 21).

1) MARINE SYSTEM

This system consists of the open ocean overlying the continental shelf. Marine habitats are exposed to the waves and currents of the open ocean and the characteristics of the water are determined primarily by the ebb and flow of oceanic tides. Salinities exceed 30%. An example of a marine system wetland is a mangrove swamp (U.S. FWS 6).

2) ESTUARINE SYSTEM

This system consists of deepwater tidal habitats and adjacent tidal wetlands that are usually semi-enclosed by land but have sporadic access to the ocean water that is occasionally diluted by freshwater runoff from the land. This system includes both estuaries and lagoons. Examples are the Chesapeake Bay and Chincoteague Bay (U.S. FWS 6, 7).

3) RIVERINE SYSTEM

This system includes all wetlands and deepwater habitats contained within a channel except for habitats with water containing ocean derived salts in excess of .5%. The riverine system is bound on the landward side by upland, by the channel bank (including natural and man-made levees), or by wetland dominated by trees, shrubs, mosses, or lichens. The water is usually, but not always, flowing in this type of system (U.S. FWS 7).

4) LACUSTRINE SYSTEM

This system includes wetlands and deepwater habitats with the following characteristics: situated within a topographic depression or a dammed river channel, may lack trees, shrubs, mosses or lichens, and the total area may exceed 20 acres. The waters may be tidal or nontidal. This system includes permanently flooded lakes and reservoirs (ex: Lake Superior), intermittent lakes, and tidal lakes (ex: Grand Lake, Louisiana) (U.S. FWS 8).

5) PALUSTRINE SYSTEM

This System groups the vegetated wetlands traditionally called by names such as marsh, swamp, bog, and fen that are found throughout the U.S. It also includes the small, shallow, permanent or intermittent water bodies often called ponds. Palustrine systems may also occur as islands in lakes or rivers, in isolated catchments, or on slopes (U.S. FWS 9).

IV. SUBCLASSES OF WETLANDS

Within the five major classifications of wetlands exist a number of subsystems. For example, the marine and estuarine systems each have two subsystems, subtidal and intertidal. The riverine system has four subsystems, tidal, lower perennial, upper perennial, and intermittent. The lacustrine system also has two subsystems, littoral and limnetic. The palustrine system has no subsystems (U.S. FWS 2).

• BASED ON SUBSTRATE AND FLOODING PATTERNS

Within the systems/subsystems are more defined wetland divisions based upon the presence of substrate material and flooding regime, or on vegetative life form. These divisions are called classes. There are six classes based on substrate and flooding patterns (U.S. FWS 2) :

1) Rock bottom with a substrate of bedrock, boulders, or stones. This class is flooded all or most of the time.

2) Unconsolidated bottom with a substrate of cobbles, gravel, sand, mud, or organic material. This class is also flooded all or most of the time.

3) Rocky shore with the same substrates as the rock bottom class. The surface is exposed most of the time.

4) Unconsolidated shore with the same substrates as the unconsolidated bottom class. The surface is exposed most of the time.

5) Streambed with any of the substrates. It is restricted to channels of intermittent streams and tidal channels that lack water at low tide.

6) Reef with a substrate composed of the living and dead remains of invertebrates (corals, mollusks, or worms).

B. BASED ON VEGETATION

There are five classes based upon the type of vegetative life form that exists (U.S. FWS 2, 21) :

1) Aquatic bed, dominated by plants that grow principally on or below the surface of the water.

2) Moss - lichen wetland, dominated by mosses or lichens.

3) Emergent wetland, dominated by emergent herbaceous angiosperms (flowering plants with enclosed seeds).

4) Scrub - shrub wetland, dominated by shrubs or small trees.

5) Forested wetland, dominated by large trees. Characterized by woody vegetation that is at least 6m tall. This type of wetland is most common in the eastern United States and in sections of the western U.S. where moisture is relatively abundant, particularly along rivers and in the mountains. This type usually contains an overstory of trees, an understory of young trees or shrubs, and an herbaceous layer. This class is only found within the palustrine and estuarine systems.

Other criteria (called modifiers) that are also examined when determining the type of wetland are: the type and duration of flooding (i.e. regularly flooded, irregularly flooded, seasonally flooded), the water chemistry within a given area (i.e. salinity or pH of the water), and soil types (i.e., excavated, farmed, impounded) (U.S. FWS 3). The main factor to remember is that all classes of wetlands have soil or substrate that is at least periodically saturated with or covered by water .

V. EXAMINATION OF A LOCAL WETLAND

LOCATION

Now that I have described the process involved in determining a wetland, I want to describe an area northwest of the city of Fredericksburg, Virginia (Figure 1) that I have spent much of my

Figure 1: Fall Hill Avenue Wetland Area

time evaluating. This wetland area is located west on Fall Hill Avenue just as one would drive across a small bridge that goes over the Rappahanock Canal. This site is also just southwest of the Embrey Dam which is located on the Rappahanock River. The wetland drains into the Rappahanock Canal. It is a concave area located between an upland completely stripped of all vegetation (to make room for urban development) on the eastern side, and an upland on the western side that has impervious surfaces created by an apartment complex on the hilltop. The area towards the base of the slope from the apartment complex is covered with vegetation (grass, shrubs) and various hardwood trees. The wetland is fed by the following: a second order stream which flows through it, horton overland flow from the stripped area located to the east, runoff from the sides of a service road that is paved and leads to the wetland site from the south, and a storm drain that carries surface overflow from the apartment complex on the western side.

COMPARISON OF MINERALS FROM HILLTOP TO WETLAND

Upon initial inspection of the wetland site, the soil on the surface specifically along the eastern side contained an orange clay color which I suspected was from the stripped hilltop. As I hiked closer to the non-vegetated surface of the hilltop to the east, I could see rills and ruts along an embankment that indicated to me that quite a bit of erosion had occurred recently on the hilltop (this region experienced large amounts of precipitation this spring, in some cases more than one inch of rain per day).

In order to determine if the source of the orange soil in the wetland was from the hilltop, I decided to compare the mineralogy of surface clay soil samples from both the hilltop and the wetland area at the base of the hillslope. To do this I (with the guidance of Dr. Aslan) used a device called an X-ray diffractometer. This piece of equipment consists of an X-ray tube, usually having a copper target, that produces X-rays of known wavelengths in a beam that falls on a flat-surfaced sample (my prepared soil samples) (Blackburn and Dennen 208). The positions of X-ray peaks and their intensities are "fingerprints" of specific minerals. The positions and intensities of peaks reflect the internal structure of a mineral (qtd. in Mineralogy 301 class notes 1997). By analyzing d-values that correspond to spacings between parallel planes in a mineral’s structure (as provided by a computer printed strip chart), it is quite clear that the mineral contents are the same (Figure 3, 4). This clearly indicates that the hilltop site that is cleared of vegetation is a source of sediment for the wetland site.

Figures 3 and 4: Deffractometer Data of Wetland Area

I pulled core samples of soil from four areas within the perimeter of the wetland. These samples were: light olive brown 5/4 with field characteristics of a loam at a site on the western side closest to the canal, olive brown 4/4 with field characteristics of a silty clay loam at a site on the western side closest to the service road, olive brown 4/4 with field characteristics of a clay loam at a site on the eastern side, and dark grayish brown 4/2 with field characteristics of a sandy clay loam at a site on the eastern side closest to the canal ( Munsell Soil Color Chart).

Based on the substrate within the wetland that I observed, the area falls within class number two of the six classes that are based on substrate and flooding patterns. This class is "unconsolidated bottom with a substrate of cobbles, gravel, sand, mud, or organic material".

IDENTIFICATION OF FLORA AND FAUNA

I surveyed the wetland area specifically for the vegetative forms that exist within its boundaries to use this criteria to establish which of the five wetland systems this area would quantify as. I identified a number of tree, bird, plant, and insect species (Niering color plates 199 - 588, 423 - 600) (Peterson and McKenny 2 - 387). Species identified include the following:

TREES

Sweet Gum, Water Oak, PawPaw, American Elm, Black Willow, River Birch, White Dogwood, Ash, and Red Maple

PLANTS

Yellow Flag, Swamp Dewberry, Poison Ivy, Spotted Joe-Pye Weed, Smooth Azalea, Lichens, Dandelion, Bracket Fungus, May Apple, Wool Grass, Royal Fern, Violets, Wild Raspberry, Golden Ragwort, Pink-spring Beauty (woodland flower), Miterwort (White), and Aster (or Stitchwort, white)

INSECTS

Bumblebee, Waterstrider, Green Pubescent Ground Beetle, Swallowtail Butterfly, and Mosquito

BIRDS

Red Winged Blackbird, Tufted Titmouse, Swamp Sparrow, Blue Jay, Downy Woodpecker, Red Bellied Woodpecker, Red Tailed Hawk, Goldfinch, Crow, Blackbird, Mallard Duck, Carolina Thrush, Cardinal, Pileated Woodpecker, and Robin

Based on my observations, this wetland is a forested wetland which is class number five within the five classes of wetlands that exist based upon vegetative form present within the area. Forested wetlands are only found within the palustrine and estuarine systems. Because this area is not tidally influenced, this site comes under the category of a palustrine wetland system.

VI. COMPARISON of WETLANDS along the RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER

Wetlands along the Rappahannock River and all other rivers on the East Coast are divided into two categories. * There are approximately 99 million remaining acres of wetlands in the continental United States. 93.7 million acres are inland wetlands and the remaining 5.2 million acres are estuaries (Baldwin 17).

A. COASTAL WETLANDS – Estuarine Wetlands

Coastal wetlands on the Rappahannock River are usually found east of I-95 and below the fall line on part of the coastal plain called the "coastal zone."

Coastal wetlands in general are those wetlands that are tidally influenced and periodically flooded by salt or brackish water (Tiner 2). They make up approximately 1/4 of the wetlands in Virginia.

Coastal wetlands include three basic landscapes:

1. Tidal Marshes

Tidal Marshes are by far the most common type of coastal wetland. They are characteristically salt-tolerant grasslands tidally flooded by salt or brackish sea water. These systems are dominated by grassy vegetation, including smooth cordgrass and switchgrass, which are able to survive the salty conditions (Tiner 3).

2. Mudflats

Mudflats are non-vegetated wetlands that are constantly barraged by the tides. They are found between low and high tide mark (NAS 2-3).

3. Shrub Wetlands

Shrub Wetlands are those tidal wetlands that are not grasslands, but support other kinds of salt-tolerant vegetation less than 20 feet in height (NAS 2-3).

Coastal Wetlands are particularly important habitats for wildlife. They support many different kinds of estuarine and marine fishes, shellfish, various waterfowl, shorebirds and wading birds, and several mammals. Most commercial and game fishes use coastal wetlands as nursery or spawning grounds (Tiner 4).

One coastal environment that includes coastal wetlands is an estuary. The estuary is a boundary between the river and the sea. An estuary is defined by William C. Boicourt as "a semi-free connection with the open sea and within which sea water is measurably diluted" (32). The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the coastal US. It is so large that it is not just one estuary, but a 300-kilometer long backbone connecting the several estuaries that exist on the lower parts of the bay’s tributaries, including the Rappahannock River (Boicourt 30). When nutritional value, number and diversity of species, and economic value are considered, estuaries are usually considered one of the best natural habitats on Earth (Jerome 48).

B. PIEDMONT WETLANDS – Inland Wetlands

Inland Wetlands along the Rappahannock River are located mostly on the Piedmont Plateau and the some of the Coastal Plain of Virginia.

Inland Wetlands are mostly non-tidal and freshwater. They are situated above the tidal influence and so they do not fluctuate as much as coastal wetlands (Tiner 2). They make up the other 3/4 of Virginian wetlands.

Three types of inland wetlands are most common:

1. Swamps

Swamps have standing or gently moving water either seasonably for long periods, though the water table may at times drop below the rooting zone of vegetation. Swamps are often transitional environments between large open water and higher, drier land (Selcraig 47).

2. Bogs

A bog is a wet, spongy, poorly drained, and usually acidic type of wetland (Merriam Webster 96). In the damp, once-glaciated region of North America where bogs form, vegetation doesn’t decompose as quickly as it would in some other places, like the rain forests for example. Here the accumulation of dead plant material overwhelms the rate of decomposition, creating a stagnant, acidic, nutrient poor ecosystem filled with peat and sphagnum moss (Selcraig 47).

3. Wooded Wetlands

Forested wetlands are by far the most common type. They include woodland marshes and bottomland hardwood forests. These wetlands are characterized by trees taller than 20 feet in height (NAS 2-3). These wetlands are a major source of this country’s timber supply.

Inland wetlands are also valuable fish and wildlife habitats. Most fresh water fish feed in wetlands or upon wetland-produced food and use wetlands as nursery grounds. A variety of mammals and bird life are also associated with inland wetlands (Tiner 4).

VII. OUTLOOK

Wetland ecosystems are among the most threatened of all natural resources. Unfortunately, at the present time there is no balance between a healthy environment and economic development. Americans have destroyed 120 million of the 215 million acres of wetlands originally in existence within the contiguous 48 states (Williams 47). The nationwide average of historic wetlands is 53% (Zedler and Powell). According to Joy Zedler and Abby Powell, "we will never know all that we have lost. We do know that many species have declined, that some have become endangered with extinction, that fisheries have declined, and that open space is at a premium."

Wetland conversion began upon the arrival of European immigrants. They came to the new world with both the will and the technology to dry things out. One of the most tragic actions ever taken involving the livelihood of wetlands was the passing of the Swampbuster Act in the mid-19th century. Through this law the federal government awarded nearly 65 million acres of wetlands to 15 states for their own uses. But the most rapid conversion of wetlands occurred between the mid-1950s and mid-1970s. During this 20-year period an estimated 450,000 acres per year were destroyed. Most of the losses were of inland wetlands, 440,000 acres, and due primarily to agriculture, 396,000 acres (Baldwin 17). Since the 1970s this destructive trend has slowed down measurably.

This may be for several reasons (NRCS/RCA 3):

There has been a decline in the profitability of converting wetlands for agricultural purposes recently. Prices for agricultural land have crashed and now it’s cheaper for farmers to buy up lands than make them with drainage ditches.

The presence of the Clean Water Act Section 404 permit program and the growth in state regulatory programs has made an impact.

There is now a greater public interest and more support for wetland protection and restoration.

Also the implementation of federal, state, and local wetland programs that protect and restore wetlands has helped.

However, wetland conversion is still continuing at a very rapid pace. For a long time agriculture was the leading cause of wetland loss, but as of late the main reason wetlands are being converted is turning to urban development. Nevertheless, there are many human activities happening that greatly impacts the health and well being of wetlands.

1. Agricultural Development

Agricultural development is the draining and filling of wetlands for crop production. 80% of total wetland loss through all of history has been related to agricultural conversion (Tripp 44) . Currently few states have wetland programs that regulate agricultural conversion.

2. Urban Development

Urban development now makes up 57% of wetland conversion (NRCS/RCA 2). Urban areas are spreading out at a fantastic rate and encroaching on wetland territory.

3. Pollution

Pollution degrades the quality of wetlands by direct or indirect discharge of various materials including pesticides, herbicides, other chemicals, sediment, domestic sewage, and agricultural wastes (Tiner 16). Because of their lower topography, wetlands are often the catchment for a drainage basin and the final destination of all the pollution present in the basin. It is true that wetlands are good processors of pollutants, but only to a certain extent. Sometimes a wetland gets too polluted to function.

4. Dredging and Channeling

Dredging and channeling is the act of excavating of wetlands for the purposes of navigation and flood protection (Tiner 16).

5. Coastal Impoundment Construction

Coastal Impoundment Construction is the diking and flooding of coastal wetlands to create brackish water impoundments for waterfowl use or other purposes (Tiner 16). This stops the flow of water in and out of the wetland thus destroying the wetland system.

6. Pond and Lake Construction

Pond or Lake Construction involves impounding or excavating and flooding wetlands for water supply, flood protection, etc. (Tiner 16).

7. Loss of Stream side Buffer

The loss of stream side buffers causes Horton Overland Flow. This leads to poor water quality due to increased erosion and fertilizer runoff from the cleared land (Gosselink).

8. Strategic Landscape Position

Coastal wetlands occur on the coast, where urban and agricultural land uses compete for these strategic landscape positions (Zedler and Powell). The land is usually very fertile along the coast. Also many towns have grown up on the coast because of the transportation advantages. Thus, coastal wetland values remain high.

Prairie potholes are isolated wetland areas that often get in the way of large, usable tracts of farm land. Farmers don’t think twice before bulldozing them.

9. Mining

Wetlands are almost always destroyed if oil or gas is found in the vicinity. Also, peat, coal, sand, and gravel are mined directly out of wetlands (Tiner).

10. Timbering and Logging

Upland forested wetlands are prime logging camps. Timber industry representatives worry that new legislation will result in more acres being classified as wetlands, making the job of supplying the country’s timber needs more difficult (Boyles-Sprenkel).

11. Water Appropriations

If a wetland’s water supply gets cut off, the wetland gets cut off too and it cannot function. "The most important factor for the health and function of wetlands is water movement. Whatever the amount of water, each wetland ecosystem must receive it in a regular fashion or it’s fisheries, vegetation, and wildlife migrations will be impaired. Water not only flushes nutrients into the wetland, but also provides the needed transportation for migratory fish species, which may depend upon flooding to reach otherwise dry spawning areas" (Selcraig 46).

12. Sedimentation

Mostly this is the result of sedimentation from development.

13. Legislation Problems

There are a lot of problems in deciding what wetlands are important and need to be protected. George Laycock wrote that, "often poorly protected by law, wetlands are easily dismissed, drained, or tilled, then planted or built upon and soon forgotten" (97). The various drier-end wetlands are heavily debated. Some politicians, land owners, and agency officials think that these wetlands should not be defined as wetlands, or at least should not be afforded the same degree of regulatory protection (Leidy). There are many different and contradicting opinions on how wetlands should be ruled, and while the supposed experts argue about how to define wetlands, these precious bits of landscape are slipping away (Boyles-Sprenkel).

Human activities are not the only thing making wetlands disappear. There are many natural forces that add to the loss of wetlands. These pale in comparison of human actions however.

1. Subsidence and Sea Level Rise

The rapid increase in sea level rise will cause many coastal wetlands to drown unless marsh vegetation has the opportunity to "migrate" up slope. Unfortunately, many coastal wetlands are boxed in by development or naturally steep topography and have nowhere to go.

2. Natural Succession From One Wetland to Another

This succession is brought about by a wetland’s vegetation. A wetland may first support a floating species of plants. In time, some of these plants will decay and build up a sediment layer on the wetland floor. As this layer gets increasing thicker the wetland gets shallower and emergent species of wetland plants, like reeds and rushes, start to grow. These new plants trap even more sediment and provide the perfect environment for shrub-like growth. Slowly, after decades or centuries, the wetland is changed into a dry land habitat naturally. This natural wetland loss, however, is countered by new wetland formation in other places as to keep the numbers of wetlands even. Humans have ruined this natural balance.

3. Animal Actions

This includes beaver dam cutoffs and other such phenomena (Tiner).

4. Drought

5. Hurricanes and Other Major Storms

These storms throw of the natural workings of a wetland just as they do many other things.

VIII. LEGISLATION

Even though it's easy for us to appreciate the valuable role that wetlands play in our ecosystem, it has only been in the last 30 years that wetlands have received any sort of protection or even good publicity. From the beginning of this country's settlement, wetlands have been viewed as a nuisance and their destruction was commonplace. The Swamp Acts of the mid-1800's rewarded states with the profits from the sales of federal wetlands provided the states drain the wetlands. Later, at the turn of the century, the Bureau of Reclamation was started in part to help eliminate wetlands. Public opinion of wetlands was not positive: people thought of them as mosquito- and snake-infested swamps that smelled bad and attracted vermin. But that began to change in the environmentally conscious '70s, and in 1977 the Clean Water Act was created.

A. FEDERAL

The Clean Water Act calls for "maintaining and restoring the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of our nation's waters." It covers every aspect of water-related topics in the United States. The part that pertains to wetlands is Section 404, which regulates what you can build on or fill in a wetland with; it covers every kind of wetland, whether it's salt- or freshwater, public land or private. The use of fill or dredged materials constitutes pollution, and must be regulated by the government. (More on regulation later.) Activities that are specifically outlined under Section 404 are: projects like dams and levees, bridges, road crossings, pipelines, bank protection (like bulkheads or rip rap), and channelization (which would drain the water from the wetland). The philosophy of this legislation is that if there is a more efficient way to achieve the desired results, the permit will be denied. Ideally, only permits that have incorporated best management practices (BMPs) and anticipate the least possible impact are approved.

The permits are given by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, who evaluate the applications based on the recommendations of the Environmental Protection Agency. The EPA sets the standards for review and the Corps complies. The EPA can veto a permit issued by the Corps if it feels the permit has been issued erroneously, but it rarely does. Both agencies share the authority to decide what constitutes a wetland, and other governmental agencies (like the Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service) also provide input. As a result, definitions quite frequently either overlap or leave gaps, and there can be much dispute throughout the permit review process.

To review a permit, the Corps performs an environmental assessment of the area and determines the impact of the proposed practice. If there is a way to achieve the desired results with greater efficiency, or to incorporate more BMPs, the Corps will make the appropriate recommendations and ask the applicant to amend the application.

To simplify the distribution of permits, a series of Nationwide Permits have been developed (Figure 6). For common requests, nationwide permits can be granted to save the Corps the time of having to construct individual permits on a case-by-case basis. A nationwide permit can be granted for small-scale activities like rip rap, bulkheads, and dredge and/or fill projects involving less than 25 cubic yards of fill. Nationwide permits are not blanket permits, however; the Corps can veto an application granted as a nationwide permit if there proves to be a significant threat to the area. There are about 50 kinds of nationwide permits, but the controversial one that applies to wetlands is Permit 26, which allows up to 10 acres of fill in wetlands above headwaters without necessarily getting an individual permit. If the project is for between 1 and 10 acres, it must go through a review process; but all requests for less than 1 acre are automatically approved (provided they follow BMPs).

Figure 6: 404 Permit Uses

Enforcement of these regulations can be difficult, as compliance is largely voluntary. If someone decides to forego the permit process, it is possible the infraction will go completely undetected. It's not as if there are wetland patrols to maintain vigilance. Perpetrators face penalties (if caught) that includes revocation of permits, fines, civil or criminal prosecution, and enforced mitigation processes.

Mitigation is the practice of "wetland banking"; that is, the Corps will allow the altering of a wetland if another wetland is created to compensate. Mitigation operates on a ratio basis: say a builder destroys 5 acres of wetlands and the ratio for that jurisdiction is 1:3, then the builder would have to produce 15 acres of wetland somewhere else. This is generally done in one of two ways: an artificial wetland is constructed, or the builder will purchase 15 acres of genuine wetland from another landowner, in a sense making a withdrawal from the "wetlands bank". This is a very controversial process because, although man-made wetlands can be successful, few who must comply with this rule take the time or money to properly recreate a biologically diverse wetland, and usually end up creating a big mud puddle.

B. STATE AND LOCAL

Virginia, in addition to operating under the federal Clean Water Act, passed The Wetlands Act in 1972 which authorizes localities to adopt their own wetlands zoning ordinances. This means that each locality has the option of imposing their own restrictions on top of the ones outlined at the federal and state level. At the state level, the Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) and the Virginia Marine Resources Commission (VMRC) further oversee the use of the Clean Water Act. In the absence of a local wetlands board, the VMRC is responsible for administering the permit process. If there is a local board, the responsibility for issuing permits rests with them, and they do so based on guidelines set by the VMRC and the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS).

IX. THE PERMIT APPLICATION PROCESS

In Virginia there is one joint permit application, about 70 pages long, that a citizen fills out and submits to the VMRC. They in turn distribute copies to all interested parties, such as the Corps and the local wetlands board. When filing, all supporting material (like maps and soil assessments) must be included, and there is a fee. Every document must be made available for public examination and a public notice must be given. If there is a wetlands board, there follows a public meeting, and all agencies and interested parties are notified. The board votes within 30 days of the hearing, and the applicant may appeal the decision. If the permit recipient fails to comply in any way with the permit as it was issued, the board may revoke or suspend it (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Virginia's Shoreline Permit Process

X. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baldwin, Malcolm F. "Wetlands: Fortifying Federal and Regional Cooperation." Environment September 1987: 16-20+.

Blackburn, William H., and William H. Dennen. Principles of Mineralogy . Iowa: Wm. C. Brown: 208.

Bohlen, Curtis C. "Controversy Over Federal Definitions of Wetlands." Bioscience March 1991: 129.

Boicourt, William C. "Estuaries: Where the River Meets the Sea." Oceanus Summer 1993: 29-37.

Boyles-Sprenkel, Carolee. "Watershed Wars: Wetlands in Chaos." American Forest July/August: 17- 22+.

Chaun, Melissa. "Plowing Through the Muck: A Review of Wetland Assessment/Evaluation Methods." Wetland Program Technical Report November 1993: 1-6.

Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States . U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. OBS-79/31, December 1979.

Cooney, Catherine M. "Army Corps Closes Regulatory Loopholes for Small Wetland Fills." Environmental Science and Technology February 1997: 31.

Cowardin, Lewis M, Virginia Carter, Francis C. Golet, and Edward T. LaRoe. Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the U.S. Wahington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979.

Crabtree, Gene L. Interview. 10 March 1998.

Cressel, Mary, and Janice Stutton. "Wetlands: Values and Trends." NRCS/RCA Issue Brief. November 1995: 1-6.

Cressel, Mary, and Janice Suttton. "Wetlands: Programs and Partnerships." NRCS/RCA Issue Brief 8 January 1996: 1-6.

Gillis, Anna Maria. "Make Sure You Have a Good Map: Wetland Maps." Bioscience December 1996: 808-809. Discussion May 1997: 269.

Gnam, Rosemarie S. "Wetland Bills Swamp Congress." Bioscience March 1992: 222.

Gosselink, James G. et al. "Landscape Conservation in a Forested Wetland Watershed: Can We Manage Cumulative Impacts?" Bioscience 40. September 1990: 588-600.

Jerome, Lawrence E. "Preserving the Nation’s Wetlands." Oceans May/June 1983: 48-49.

Kaiser, Jocelyn. "New Wetlands Draw Flak." Science February 1998: 980-981. Online. Internet. 3 March 1998. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdwed?Did…3&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=7&Sid=8&RQT=309.

King, John T. III. Interview. 10 March 1998.

Kusler, Jon. "Wetlands Deliniation: An Issue of Science or Politics." Environment March 1992: 6-11.

Laycock, George. "How to Save a Wetland." Audubon July 1990: 96-101.

Leidy, Robert A, Peggy L. Fledfer, and Elizabeth R. Micheli. "Is Wetter Better?: Government Policy on Wetlands." Bioscience January 1992: 58-61.

Lippson, Alice Jane, and Robert L. Lippson. Life in the Chesapeake Bay . 2nd ed. London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.

Mineralogy 301 class notes from Dr. Jodie Hayob, Mary Washington College. 1997.

Munsell Soil Color Chart. 1994 edition.

National Audobon Society Mid-Atlantic Regional Office. Saving Wetlands: A Citizen’s Guide for Action in the Mid-Atlantic Region . Pennsylvania: National Audobon Society, 1993.

"Natural Wetlands Win." National Wildlife December 1997/January 1998: 10. Online. Internet. 9March 1998. http://proquest.umi.com/pqd?Did…&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=38&Sid=8&RQT=309.

Niering, William. Wetlands . National Audubon Society Nature Guide. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997: 19, 21, 423 - 600, color plates 199 – 588

Niering, William A. Wetlands . Second Printing. New York: Chanticleer Press Inc. 1987.

Peterson, Roger Tory, and Margaret McKenny. A Field Guide to Wildflowers . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968: 2 - 387.

Platt, Rutherford H. "Coastal Wetland Management: The Advance Design Approach." Environment November 1989: 16-20+.

Schiller, Eugene and Shannon Flannagan. "Protecting Wetlands is Good Buisness for Local Governments." Public Management . October 1997: 19-24. Online. Internet. 9 March 1998. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdwed?Did…&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=71&Sid=1&RQT=309.

Selcraig, Bruce. "What is a Wetland." Sierra May/June 1996: 44-49.

Sharpard, Rob. "Swamp Things: Handling Local Wetland Issues." The American City and Country November 1997: 28-36+. Online. Internet. 9 March 1998. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did…&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=55&Sid=8&RQT=309.

STAFF WIRE REPORTS. "Wetlands: Plan Opens Sensitive Land, Critics Say." Virginian Pilot February 2,1998: A10. Online. Internet. 9 March 1998. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did...&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=12&Sid=8&RQT=309.

Tiner, Ralph W, Jr. Mid-Atlantic Wetlands: A Disappearing Natural Treasure . Massachusetts: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1987. Pennsylvania: U.S Environmental Protection Agency, 1987.

Tiner, Ralph W, Jr. "NWI Maps - Basic Information on the Nation’s Wetlands." Bioscience May 1997: 269.

Topographical maps of Salem Church, Virginia and Fredericksburg, Va. U.S. Geological Survey. 1994

Tripp, James T. B. "The Status of Wetlands Regulations." Environment March 1986: 44-45.

Wetlands Values and Trends . U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Issue Brief 4, November 1995.

Williams, Ted. "What Good is a Wetland?" Audubon . November-December 1996, 42-53+.

Zedler, Joy B, and Abby N. Powell. "Managing Coastal Wetlands: Complexities, Compromises, and Concerns." Oceanus Summer 1993: 19-28.

Special thanks to Mary E. Alvarado and Sofia Santos for their technical support used in the presentation portion of this project.

Figures 3 and 4

Hilltop Soil Sample

Research Projects

Spring Sapping at Caledon National Park

Post-Settlement Deposition along Rappahannock River near Falmouth

Coastal Erosion at the Rappahannock River Mouth

Using Paleo-Indian Sites to Study Rappahannock River Course

Riparian Forest Buffers (RFBs)

Geologic Influences on Horsepen Run (Upper Rappahannock Basin)

Ancient Fluvial Deposition throughout Fredericksburg, Virginia

First Order Stream Hydrology

Lower Terraces along the Rappahannock River below Fredericksburg, Virginia and the Effects on Terrac

The Effects of Structural Deformation on the Fall Line of the Rappahannock River near Fredericksburg

Wetlands: Characteristics, Rappahannock Basin Case Study, Outlook, and Legislation

Gen'l Environmental & Geomorphic Effects of Dams, & the Significance of Embrey Dam on Rappahannock

Soil and Drainage Survey of the Hazel Run Drainage Basin

Water Quality in Massaponax Creek Drainage Basin

WETLANDS: CHARACTERISTICS, CASE STUDY, OUTLOOK, and LEGISLATION

Brenda Kincaid-Young, Senior Environmental Science Major

Casey Selden, Freshman

Nedr a Stuckey , Senior Environmental Science Major